Spain became a nation a few years later by the expulsion of the Moors and the union of Castille and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella.

Holland, again, acquired her national freedom in her great struggle against Spain in the sixteenth century.

But it was not until the end of the eighteenth century that nationalism became a real force in Europe, an idea for which men died and in whose name monarchies were overthrown.

"In the old European system," writes Lord Acton, "the rights of nationalities were neither recognised by governments nor asserted by the people.

The interest of the reigning families, not those of the nations, regulated the frontiers, and the administration was conducted generally without any reference to popular desires.